Penelope Is a Real Hero

Penelope Is a Real Hero Odysseus has often been regarded as the only hero in the famous Homer’s epic Odyssey. It is but natural as the epic goes under the name Odyssey and it focuses on Odysseus’s adventures. Nonetheless, there are many other heroes. It is important to note that males have been ascribed to heroic deeds, e.g.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Penelope Is a Real Hero specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Odysseus and his men, or Telemachus (Clayton 18). However, women also play an important role in the story. Goddesses, shadows and living women help men in their activities. Of course, Athena, the goddess of warfare and wisdom, helps Odysseus in many affairs. However, the goddess should not be regarded as a heroine as she does not belong to the world of humans. As far as the heroines pertaining to the world of humans are concerned, one of the main heroines to be admired is Penelope, Odysseus’s wife who i s faithful, wise and even as cunning as her husband. In fact, Penelope should be considered a hero as she manages to rule the kingdom (Ithaca), she is ready to sacrifice her entire life for the sake of her son, Telemachus, and she manages to remain faithful to her husband due to her wisdom and cunning. The Wise Ruler When analyzing the role of the queen in the story, it is crucial to remember about the role of women in the Ancient Greek society. Thus, Clark and Schwiebert point out that Penelope is to fulfill tasks which â€Å"must be relatively safe, can easily be interrupted and resumed, and must require minimal movement from home† (164). Penelope being a woman has to comply with these rules. However, the queen is in quite a specific position. She does not have her husband beside her to run the house and the entire kingdom. It is necessary to note that the epic does not focus on Penelope as a ruler. Nonetheless, it is clear that Penelope plays a very important role in her k ingdom even though it is not revealed explicitly. Thus, Odysseus meets his mother and inquires her about Penelope. The woman describes Penelope’s position in the following way: Still with her child indeed she is, poor heart, still in your palace hall. Forlorn her nightsAdvertising Looking for research paper on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More and days go by, her life in weeping. But no man takes your honored place. Telemakhos has care of all your garden plots and fields, and holds the public honor of a magistrate, feasting and being feasted†¦ (Homer 351) The first part of this speech suggests that Penelope is only weeping and doing some female job in the house. It may seem that Telemachus is the real ruler of the kingdom as he takes care of all public affairs, and he also runs their lands. Nonetheless, it is clear that the young ruler resorts to his mother’s help who gives val uable advice on various matters. The first line of the speech confirms that Penelope is beside her son helping him in any possible way. Of course, it is impossible to claim that Penelope is as powerful as any other ruler, or Odysseus himself, as she is still just a woman in the Ancient Greek society. Nonetheless, Penelope’s role is somewhere in between (Clayton 19). It is possible to claim that she is the ‘à ©minence grise’ of Ithaca who manages to keep the wealth and glory of the kingdom.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Penelope Is a Real Hero specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Vetter claims that weaving is one of the most important symbols in the epic (33). Of course, it is the symbol of memory as Penelope is thinking about Odysseus while weaving. Apart from this, Penelope’s weaving can also be regarded as a symbol of her â€Å"status within her household, the city of Ithakaâ₠¬  (Vetter 33). On one hand, she fulfills purely female tasks like weaving. On the other hand, she guides her son and helps him to be a wise ruler. She creates a covert web which covers the entire kingdom and keeps its order. It is necessary to add that that the woman has to live under a great pressure as she is doomed to hear news about her heroic husband and she still thinks he is dead. She cannot bear listening to songs about her courageous husband: â€Å"†¦ But sing no more / this bitter tale that wears my heart away† (Homer 233). Nonetheless, the woman finds strength to think of her son and the entire kingdom. She manages to be thoughtful even in her grief. Admittedly, this is one of the features ascribed to heroes. Penelope’s Self-Sacrifice Furthermore, she is not only a wise and strong ruler. She is also a loving mother. She is also ready to sacrifice her entire life to secure her son’s future. She has to comply with the necessity to remarry as her son â€Å"is suffering as a result of the suitors’ devouring of his resources† (Said 298). The woman has to think of remarriage as her family as well as her son force her to do this as all think that Odysseus is no more alive: â€Å"Odysseus was not the only one at Troy / never to know the day of his homecoming† (Homer 234). Even Odysseus himself forces her to marry as on his departure he claims that she should remarry in case he does not come back when their son is already adult (Vetter 33). The wretched woman loves her husband and believes he is still alive and she hopes that her husband will come and take revenge: Ah, if he comes again, no falcon ever struck more suddenly than he will, with his son,Advertising Looking for research paper on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More to avenge this outrage! (Homer 445) However, she still cannot lament for the rest of her life as she is to take care of her child (Heitman 63). She understands that many people would like to be the rulers of Ithaca. She also understands that she is not able to resist all those suitors who can soon become enemies. These enemies can bring their troops to the gates of Ithaca. Thus, Penelope understands that only women, her young son and her old wretched father-in-law cannot resist an army of trained warriors. She understands that any resistance will lead to the fall of her homeland: â€Å"spurn them she dare not, though she hates that marriage† (Homer 231). Her son reveals the graveness of their position: We have no strong Odysseus to defend us, and as to putting up a fight ourselves – we’d only show our incompetence in arms. (Homer 237) She has to find the way out. The only way out for her is another marriage. She has to marry one of the suitors. Admittedly, this deed can be seen as incompatible to heroic deeds. However, in this case Penelope does perform a heroic deed. She sacrifices her feelings, and even her life to save her son and her land from destruction. Of course, she does not lead an army and she does not defeat her enemies. However, her submission should be considered heroic. Furthermore, sacrifice is often regarded as a heroic deed, no matter what kind of sacrifice it is. Therefore, Penelope is one of those heroes who sacrifice something for the good. She is not concerned with her own destiny as she strives to save her land and her son. This courage is inspiring. More so, even some men depicted in the epic do not reveal the same courage and self-sacrifice. Admittedly, Penelope should be considered as one of the heroes of the epic. Penelope’s Faithfulness She Tries the Suitors Apart from her readiness to sacrifice everything, Penelope has the courage and wits to remain faithful to her husband. In the first place, she tries to postpone the day she should make her decision. She is as cunning as her husband. She manages to deceive her suitors for three years weaving and unweaving (Heitman 63). At the same time she never stops inquiring about her husband: Every time some traveller comes ashore he has to tell my mistress his pretty tale, and she receives him kindly, questions him, remembering her prince, while the tears run down her cheeks†¦ (Homer 391) Penelope is unwilling to betray her husband or even his memory. Even when her secret is revealed and she is forced to make her decision, she still manages to postpone the day of her marriage. Penelope makes her suitors compete. Even when the wise woman understands that she has no choice and she has to choose a new husband, she makes a wise choice. She invents another trial for the suitors. She makes the suitors understand that she can marry only the most deserving man who could be as strong as Odysseus (Steinruck 113). She Tries Her Own Husband Apart f rom trials for her suitors, she wants to make sure that the man who claims to be her husband is really her beloved. Her faithfulness does not allow her to accept the man unless she is perfectly sure that the man is her husband. The woman feels that the beggar is her husband, but she wants to make sure (Steinruck 114). Steinruck suggests that Penelope understands that the beggar is Odysseus but still keeps asking and trying him â€Å"for the playful revenge she takes on Odysseus because he misled her† (114). Nonetheless, her reluctance is more likely to be a sign of her great faith. She makes everyone understand that there is only one man who can be beside her. It goes without saying that Penelope’s faithfulness is one of the features ascribed to heroes. Only real heroes can be that faithful to their beloved (or to some ideas). Penelope is faithful to both her husband and her idea of marriage. She believes she can belong to one man only and she remains faithful to this idea no matter what. It is also important to note that her faith makes her that courageous and wise. Like any other hero, Penelope is guided by her faith. She performs heroic deeds in the name of her ideas. This makes her one of the main heroes of the epic. Conclusion It is important to remember that Penelope is one of the main heroes of the epic. This courageous woman has all features of a great hero. She manages to keep the kingdom prosperous. It is necessary to note that she manages to rule even though women in Ancient Greece were to fulfill female tasks only. She does not exercise her power overtly. However, Penelope is a wise advisor who helps the young Telemachus to rule the kingdom. Apart from being a wise ruler (like any other hero), she is also ready to sacrifice everything. Thus, the kingdom as well as her own son is in danger, so she does not care about her well-being. Penelope is ready to remarry (which means death for her) in order to save her homeland. Finally, the wis e woman is faithful. She never betrays her husband, her love and her principles. Admittedly, this faithfulness can be regarded as a heroic feature. It is also important to note that Penelope should be considered a hero as she performs heroic deeds and she can be characterized by major heroic features. At the same time, she is a woman who has to comply with conventions of the patriarchal world. More so, she can be regarded as one of the major heroes as she reveals great courage to save the entire kingdom when her royal husband is away. Admittedly, Odysseus himself in many situations is not as courageous as his wise wife as the former often flees from dangerous situations whereas Penelope has to remain in the place where she can be destroyed. Penelope has the courage to face her enemies, which makes her a great hero. Clark, Susan H., and Valerie L. Schwiebert. Penelope’s Loom: A Metaphor of Women’s Development at Midlife. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development 40.2 (2001): 161-171. Print. Clayton, Barbara. A Penelopean Poetics: Reweaving the Feminine in Homer’s Odyssey. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2004. Print. Heitman, Richard. Taking Her Seriously: Penelope the Plot of Homer’s Odyssey. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2005. Print. Homer. Odyssey. The Norton Anthology of World Literature. Ed. Sarah Lawall et al. New York, NY: W.W. Norton Company, 2003. 225-516. Print. Said, Suzanne. Homer and the Odyssey. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2011. Print. Steinruck, Martin. The Suitors in the Odyssey: The Clash between Homer and Archilochus. New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc., 2008. Print. Vetter, Lisa Pace. â€Å"Women’s Work† as Political Art: Weaving and Dialectical Politics in Homer, Aristophanes, and Plato. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2005. Print.

Transformational Grammar (TG) Definition and Examples

Transformational Grammar (TG) Definition and Examples Transformational grammar is a theory of grammar that accounts for the constructions of a language by linguistic transformations and phrase structures. Also known as  transformational-generative grammar or T-G or TGG. Following the publication of Noam Chomskys book Syntactic Structures in 1957, transformational grammar dominated the field of linguistics for the next few decades. The era of Transformational-Generative Grammar, as it is called, signifies a sharp break with the linguistic tradition of the first half of the [twentieth] century both in Europe and America because, having as its principal objective the formulation of a finite set of basic and transformational rules that explain how the native speaker of a language can generate and comprehend all its possible grammatical sentences, it focuses mostly on syntax and not on phonology or morphology, as structuralism does (Encyclopedia of Linguistics,  2005). Observations The new linguistics, which began in 1957 with the publication of Noam Chomskys Syntactic Structures, deserves the label revolutionary. After 1957, the study of grammar would no longer be limited to what is said and how it is interpreted. In fact, the word grammar itself took on a new meaning. The new linguistics defined grammar as our innate, subconscious ability to generate language, an internal system of rules that constitutes our human language capacity. The goal of the new linguistics was to describe this internal grammar.Unlike the structuralists, whose goal was to examine the sentences we actually speak and to describe their systemic nature, the transformationalists wanted to unlock the secrets of language: to build a model of our internal rules, a model that would produce all of the grammatical- and no ungrammatical- sentences. (M. Kolln and R. Funk, Understanding English Grammar. Allyn and Bacon, 1998)[F]rom the word go, it has often been clear that Transformational Grammar w as the best available theory of language structure, while lacking any clear grasp of what distinctive claims the theory made about human language. (Geoffrey Sampson, Empirical Linguistics. Continuum, 2001) Surface Structures and Deep Structures When it comes to syntax, [Noam] Chomsky is famous for proposing that beneath every sentence in the mind of a speaker is an invisible, inaudible deep structure, the interface to the mental lexicon. The deep structure is converted by transformational rules into a surface structure that corresponds more closely to what is pronounced and heard. The rationale is that certain constructions, if they were listed in the mind as surface structures, would have to be multiplied out in thousands of redundant variations that would have to have been learned one by one, whereas if the constructions were listed as deep structures, they would be simple, few in number, and economically learned. (Steven Pinker, Words and Rules. Basic Books, 1999) Transformational Grammar and the Teaching of Writing Though it is certainly true, as many writers have pointed out, that sentence-combining exercises existed before the advent of transformational grammar, it should be evident that the transformational concept of embedding gave sentence combining a theoretical foundation upon which to build. By the time Chomsky and his followers moved away from this concept, sentence combining had enough momentum to sustain itself. (Ronald F. Lunsford, Modern Grammar and Basic Writers. Research in Basic Writing: A Bibliographic Sourcebook, ed. by Michael G. Moran and Martin J. Jacobi. Greenwood Press, 1990) The Transformation of Transformational Grammar Chomsky initially justified replacing phrase-structure grammar by arguing that it was awkward, complex, and incapable of providing adequate accounts of language. Transformational grammar offered a simple and elegant way to understand language, and it offered new insights into the underlying psychological mechanisms.As the grammar matured, however, it lost its simplicity and much of its elegance. In addition, transformational grammar has been plagued by Chomskys ambivalence and ambiguity regarding meaning. . . . Chomsky continued to tinker with transformational grammar, changing the theories and making it more abstract and in many respects more complex, until all but those with specialized training in linguistics were befuddled. . . .[T]he tinkering failed to solve most of the problems because Chomsky refused to abandon the idea of deep structure, which is at the heart of T-G grammar but which also underlies nearly all of its problems. Such complaints have fueled the paradigm shift to cognitive grammar. (James D. Williams, The Teachers Grammar Book. Lawrence Erlbaum, 1999) In the years since transformational grammar was formulated, it has gone through a number of changes. In the most recent version, Chomsky (1995) has eliminated many of the transformational rules in previous versions of the grammar and replaced them with broader rules, such as a rule that moves one constituent from one location to another. It was just this kind of rule on which the trace studies were based. Although newer versions of the theory differ in several respects from the original, at a deeper level they share the idea that syntactic structure is at the heart of our linguistic knowledge. However, this view has been controversial within linguistics. (David W. Carroll, Psychology of Language, 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2008)

Business Skills & Employability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Business Skills & Employability - Essay Example In order to understand the reason behind the huge inflow of FDI in China, the areas of economic reforms need to be studied in context to China, the policies framed by the government in relation to the foreign direct investments in China. The favorability of the investment climate of China in the eyes of the foreign investors need to be studied by considering the several factors that affect the inflow of foreign direct investments in the country. The analysis of the quality of infrastructure available in China for the foreign direct investments, the availability of the manpower resources in China, the regulatory framework and the laws in various sectors for foreign investment are important to understand the reasons why China has been able to attract huge inflow of foreign direct investments over the last three decades. Discussion The reasons behind China’s ability to attract huge foreign direct investments in the country over the last 30 years have been discussed as follows. Th e alternative investment patterns that have emerged in order to challenge rapid growth rate of foreign direct investments have also been included as part of the discussion. ... ina’s ability to attract huge foreign direct investments in the country are the availability of favorable infrastructure for the foreign investors, the high potential of the manpower resources and the total factor productivity of China, the policies of the government in framing favorable laws and regulations for the foreign investors and the performance requirements of the foreign investors. A picture of the growth of foreign direct investments in China has been represented below in Table 1. Table 1: FDI Inflows ($US) in China from 1983 to 2012 The above data have been plotted in graphical form as represented in Figure 1 as shown below (The World Bank, 2013, p.1). Figure 1: Increasing Trend of FDI Inflow ($US) in China from 1983-2012 The policies framed by the government in China have been established in such a way over the last three decades that the regulatory framework has been viewed favorably by the foreign investors in China. The government has set up separate laws by cl assifying the foreign investors into categories like wholly owned foreign enterprises, joint venture of the foreign enterprises and the Chinese entities and Sino-foreign co-operatives. The People Republic of China maintained a Guiding Directory for the investors who are looking for foreign investments in China. The policies framed by the government offer provisions for incentives in case of foreign investments in the special economic zones as designated by the People’s Republic of China. Although in the initial stages, the People’s Republic of China had imposed performance requirements for the foreign investors, the policies on foreign direct investments were instituted with an object to provide preferential treatments to the foreign investors who invested in the economy of China. The

The Pattern Matching Technique in Case Study Research Paper

The Pattern Matching Technique in Case Study - Research Paper Example Descriptive Case Study, pattern matching helps to determine its validity, on the condition that prior to data collection the predicted pattern of specific variables is defined. Moreover, pattern-matching being a predictive approach to intervention, it â€Å"specifies a post-intervention pattern of results/ incidents that would either show ‘effects’ or ‘no effects’†. In pattern matching, the data analysis phase begins at the preliminary stage of data collection. Testing the perceived patterns in the field is an advantage of this methodology. Data analysis would then consist of â€Å"pattern matching the collected evidence against the initially stipulated pattern†. For example, a case study conducted on educational reform can begin by conceptualizing some patterns regarding implementing improved curriculum and instruction, consequent redesigning of tests and assessments by basing them on the new curriculum and instruction methods, appropriately changed in-service opportunities for teachers, and also an altered preservice training system for new teachers. The researcher’s Case Study would determine whether this pattern of educational conditions had actually occurred, and the extent to which the conditions were clearly similar. In research, a pattern is an arrangement of occurrences, incidents, behavioral actions, or the outcomes of in terventions which occur as a series in time. Hypotheses are theories predicting a pattern of values of variables. In the pattern of a non-equivalent dependent variable design, the initially predicted value must be found for each element of a pattern of dependent variables. Another type is the pattern in a non-equivalent independent variables design, as derived from a typological theory. research validity.  

Equivalence in Translation Essay Example for Free

Equivalence in Translation Essay Professionally, however, the term translation is | |confined to the written, and the term interpretation to the spoken (Newmark, 1991: 35). If confined to a written language, translation is a | |cover term with three distinguishable meanings: 1) translating, the process (to translate; the activity rather than the tangible object), 2)| |a translation: the product of the process of translating (e. g. the translated text), and 3) translation: the abstract concept which | |encompasses both the process of translating and the product of that process Bell (1991: 13). The term translation used and discussed | |throughout this paper is confined to the written language, and refers to both the product and process of translating. | | | |The definitions of translation suggested above imply that producing the same meaning or message in the target language text as intended by | |the original author is the main objective of a translator. This notion of sameness is often understood as an equivalence relation between | |the source and target texts. This equivalence relation is generally considered the most salient feature of a quality translation. | | | |2. Problems of Equivalence | | | |The principle that a translation should have an equivalence relation with the source language text is problematic. There are three main | |reasons why an exact equivalence or effect is difficult to achieve. Firstly, it is impossible for a text to have constant interpretations | |even for the same person on two occasions (Hervey, Higgins and Haywood (1995: 14). According to these translation scholars: | | | |before one could objectively assess textual effects, one would need to have recourse to a fairly detailed and exact theory of psychological | |effect, a theory capable, among other things, of giving an account of the aesthetic sensations that are often paramount in response to a | |text (Hervey, Higgins and Haywood (1995: 14). | | | |Secondly, translation is a matter of subjective interpretation of translators of the source language text. Thus, producing an objective | |effect on the target text readers, which is the same as that on the source text readers is an unrealistic expectation. Thirdly, it may not | |be possible for translators to determine how audiences responded to the source text when it was first produced (ibid, p. 14). Miao (2000) | |gives a specific example of the impossibility of the equivalence relation: | | | |If an original was written centuries ago and the language of the original is difficult to comprehend for modern readers, then a simplified | |translation may well have greater impact on its readers that the original had on the readers in the source culture. No translator would | |hinder the readers comprehension by using absolute expressions in order to achieve equivalent effect (Miao, 2000: 202) | | | |Because the target text can never be equivalent to the source text at all levels, researchers have distinguished different types of | |equivalence (Lauscher, 2000: 151). Nida (1964) suggests formal and dynamic or functional equivalence. Formal equivalence focuses attention | |on the message itself, in both form and content. It requires that the message in the target language should match as closely as possible the| |different elements in the source language (p.159). Dynamic equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect, where the | |relationship between the receptor and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and the | |message (p. 159). Newmark (1981) makes a distinction between communicative and semantic translation. Like Nidas dynamic equivalence, | |communicative translation also tries to create the effect on the target text reader which is the same as that received by readers of the | |source language text. Koller (1997) proposes denotative, connotative, pragmatic, textual, formal and aesthetic equivalence. Munday (2001) | |describes these five different types of equivalence as follows: | |1. Denotative equivalence is related to equivalence of the extralinguistic content of a text. | |2. Connotative equivalence is related to the lexical choices, especially between near-synonyms. | |3. Text-normative equivalence is related to text types, with texts behaving in different ways. | |4. Pragmatic equivalence, or communicative equivalence, is oriented towards the receiver of the text or message. | |5. Formal equivalence is related to the form and aesthetics of the text, includes word plays and the individual stylistic features of the | |source text (p. 47). | | | |Baker (1992) classifies various problems of equivalence in translation and suggests some strategies to deal with them. Adopting a bottom-up | |approach, she begins with simple words and phrases and continues with grammatical, textual and pragmatic equivalences. | | | |3. Strategies to solve problems of equivalence | | | |As has been mentioned above, problems of equivalence occur at various levels, ranging from word to textual level. The equivalence problems | |emerge due to semantic, socio-cultural, and grammatical differences between the source language and the target language. These three areas | |of equivalence problems are intertwined with one another. The meaning(s) that a word refers to are culturally bound, and in most cases the | |meaning(s) of a word can only be understood through its context of use. | | | |Due to semantic, socio-cultural, grammatical differences between the source language and the target language, loss and addition of | |information in translation cannot be avoided. Basnett-McGuire (1991) states that once the principle is accepted that sameness cannot exist | |between the two languages, it is possible to approach the question of loss and gain in the translation process (p. 30). Bell (1991: 6) | |suggests a similar point that something is always lost or, one might suggest, gained in the process, and according to Nida (1975), all | |types of translation involve 1) loss of information, 2) addition of information, and /or 3) skewing of information (p. 27). To conform to | |the stylistic demands and grammatical conventions of the target language, structural adjustment in translation is inevitably needed. These | |possibilities are expanded below. | | | |3. 1 Addition of information | | | |Information which is not present in the source language text may be added to the target language text. According to Newmark (1988: 91), | |information added to the translation is normally cultural (accounting for the differences between SL and TL culture), technical (relating to| |the topic), or linguistic (explaining wayward use of words). The additional information may be put in the text (i. e. by putting it in | |brackets) or out of the text (i.e. by using a footnote or annotation). Such additional information is regarded as an extra explanation of | |culture-specific concepts (Baker, 1992) and is obligatory specification for comprehension purposes. Native speakers of Batak Tapanuli | |language (the native language of Batak community in North Sumatra), for example, have the word marhusip which literally means to whisper. | |If the word marhusip is used in the context of discussing marriage within the community in question, its meaning is more than to whisper. | |It refers specifically to a situation where family members of the bride meet family members of the groom to talk about the dowry. In the | |meeting, family members of the bride whisper with one another while deciding the amount of dowry they ask from the groom. Family members of | |the groom also do they same thing while deciding whether to accept or reject it. In this context, the word marhusip may be translated into | |to whisper, but additional information to clarify the meaning of marhusip is needed to help target readers understand its underlying | |concept. | | | |Addition of information for specification purposes is also required if ambiguity occurs in the receptor language formation and if the fact | |that greater specificity may be required so as to avoid misleading reference (Nida, 1964: 227). It would be misleading, for example, if the| |word men in Tannen is an apologist for men is translated into para pria in Indonesian. The reason is that it does not actually refer to men | |in general but to American men in particular, who became the focus of Tannens study on male-female interactions. It can be argued that | |translators should add the word Amerika to the Indonesian version to avoid ambiguity or to avoid a misleading interpretation of the outcomes| |of the study by Indonesian readers (Nababan, 2003). | | | |Amplification from implicit to explicit status is another factor that requires additions. In relation to this, Nida (1964) states that | |important semantic elements carried implicitly in the source language may require explicit identification in the receptor language (p. | |227). In a given context, the meaning of the sentence, This rule is to round to the nearest even number, is implicitly stated and can easily| |be understood by readers of the original text (See Nababan, 1989 and 1999) If translated into Indonesian, an addition of information of | |suatu angka yang berada pada dua batas kategori (a number lying between two categories) and alteration of word class (the active verb | |membulatkan into the passive verb dibulatkan) are required to achieve grammaticality and produce an explicit meaning for Indonesian readers. | |It is by convention the Indonesian transitive verb membulatkan, as the equivalence of to round, needs an object. In such case, that sentence| |should be rendered into: | | | |Target sentence: | |Menurut aturan pembulatan ini, suatu angka yang berada pada batas dua kategori dibulatkan ke angka genap terdekat. | | | |Back-translation: | |According to the rule, a number lying between two categories is rounded to the nearest even number. | | | |Addition of information may also be required due to the shift of voice and the alteration of word classes to avoid misinterpretation (Nida, | |1964: 227). The word cut in I cut my finger is an active voice. If translated into Indonesian, the word class should be changed into a | |passive one, tersayat (was cut) and the addition of oleh pisau (with knife) is needed if a native speaker of Indonesian means that he or she| |did it by accident. There are also cases where two languages use a different class of words and a different level of utterances to denote | |the same meaning. The adjective adjustable in I have an adjustable chair is changed or translated into an adjective clause yang dapat | |disetel (which can be adjusted) in which the addition of yang (which) is obligatory to achieve grammaticality. | | | |3. 2 Deletion of information | | | |Baker (1992: 40) refers to deletion as omission of a lexical item due to grammatical or semantic patterns of the receptor language (Baker,| |1992: 40). She states further that | | | |this strategy may sound rather drastic, but in fact it does no harm to omit translating a word or expression in some contexts. If the | |meaning conveyed by a particular item or expression is not vital enough to the development of the text to justify distracting the reader | |with lengthy explanations, translators can and often do simply omit translating the word or expression in question (Baker, 1992: 40). | | | |There are cases where omission is required to avoid redundancy and awkwardness (Nida, 1964: 228) and this strategy is particularly applied | |if the source language tends be a redundant language. The category of plural in English is both morphologically conditioned (e.g. | |child/children, mouse/mice), and phonologically conditioned (e. g. book/books, box/boxes, pen/pens). In some circumstances, a plural noun is | |also preceded by a determiner showing plurality (some books, three pens). If the double expression of such category is reflected in | |Indonesian, redundancy will occur. It is by convention that the category of plural in Indonesian is lexically formed by repetition of the | |noun buku-buku (book-book) or by adding a noun quantifier such as beberapa (some) or tiga (three). Once a given noun is in the plural form, | |the quantifier has to be deleted. On the other hand, once there exists a quantifier denoting plurality, the noun in question should be in | |the singular form or the repetition of the noun should be avoided. | | | |As implicitly stated by Baker (1992: 40) above, deletion may also refer to pieces of content rather than restructuring for grammatical | |purposes. Such a deletion of expressions or information is debatable in relation to the translation of academic texts, however. Anyone who | |writes an academic text, for example, will not include unimportant information in his or her writing. Similarly, anyone who reads such a | |text should consider that all information in the text is important. Translators are not an exception; they should read the text as the | |original reader or a non-translator reader reads it. That is to say that this notion of information deletion should not be used as an | |excuse to hide the inability of translators to understand and transfer message of the original text. | | | |3. 3. Structural adjustment | | | |Structural adjustment is another important strategy for achieving equivalence. Structural adjustment which is also called shift (see | |Catford, 1965) or transposition (see Vinay and Darbellnet, 1977) or alteration (see Newmark, 1988) refers to a change in the grammar from SL| |to TL (Newmark, 1988: 85). Similarly, Bell (1991: 6) states that to shift from one language to another is, by definition, to alter the | |forms. The alteration of form may mean changes of categories, word classes, and word orders. Structural adjustment, according to Nida (1964:| |226), has various purposes, including: 1) to permit adjustment of the form of the message to the requirements of structure of the receptor | |language, 2) to produce semantically equivalent structures, 3) to provide equivalent stylistic appropriateness, and 4) to carry an | |equivalent communication load. | | | |Newmark (1988: 85-87) divides the shift of forms into four types. One type of shift is the change from singular to plural or in the position| |of adjective. The position of an adjective in English, for example, may occur before a noun (i.e. a difficult text) or before and after a | |noun (i. e. a difficult text available in the library). An adjective in Indonesian always comes before a noun. Therefore, a difficult text | |and a difficult text available in the library should be translated into sebuah teks sulit (a difficult text) and sebuah teks sulit yang | |tersedia di perpustakaan itu (a difficult text which is available in the library or a difficult text available in the library) respectively. | |A second type of shift is required when a SL grammatical structure does not exist in the TL. In English, for example, cohesive devices such | |as however and nevertheless may be put at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. In Indonesian, such cohesive devices always occur at| |the beginning of a sentence. The third type of shift is the one where literal translation is grammatically possible but may not accord with | |natural usage in the TL. The English sentence The man to whom she is talking on the phone lives in Jakarta can be translated literally into | |Laki-laki kepada siapa dia sedang berbicara di telepon tinggal di Jakarta. This literal translation is accurate in content but doesnt sound| |Indonesian . To conform to natural usage in Indonesian, the structure of the sentence should be adjusted into Laki-laki yang sedang | |berbicara dengannya di telpon tinggal di Jakarta (The man who is talking to her on the phone lives in Jakarta). The fourth type of | |transposition is the replacement of a virtual lexical gap by a grammatical structure (see Newmark, 1988: 87). | |In addition to the types of alteration described above, alterations of word classes (i. e. shifts from one class of words to another or from | |word level to phrase or clause level) are also required due to grammatical differences between the source and target languages. The | |preposition with in I am married with three young girls is changed into a conjunction dan (and), and the verb mempunyai needs to be added in| |Indonesian. The prepositional phrase in red in The woman in red is my wife is altered into an adjective clause yang berbaju merah (who wears| |the red clothes). | | | | | |References | | | |Baker, M. 1992. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation. London: Sage Publication. | |Bell, R. T. 1991. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice. London: Longman. | |Bassnett-McGuire, S. 1991. Translation Studies. New York: Methuen Co.Ltd. | |Catford, J. C. 1965. A Linguistic Theory of Translation. London: Longman. | |Hervey, S. , Higgins, I. , and Haywood, L. M. 1995. Thinking Spanish Translation: A Course in Translation Method: Spanish into English. | | London; New York: Routledge. | |Koller, W. 1995. â€Å"The concept of equivalence and the object of translation studies†. Target, 7 (2), 191-222. | |Miao, J. 2000. â€Å"The limitations of equivalent effect†. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, Vol. 8. No. 3, 197-205. | |Munday, J. 2001. Introducing Translation Studies. London; New York: Routledge. | |Nababan, M. R. 2003. â€Å"Translation Processes, Practices and Products of Professional Indonesian Translators. Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis. Schools| |of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. | |_________. 1999. Teori Menerjemah Bahasa Inggris. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar. | |_________. 1989. â€Å"Analisis terjemahan buku Research Methods and Analysis: Searching for Relationship karya Michael H. Walizer dan Paul, W. | |Wienir ke dalam bahasa Indonesia oleh Sadiman dan Hutagaol†. Unpublished Thesis. Surakarta: Universitas Sebelas Maret. | |Newmark, P. 1991. About Translation. Great Britain: Longdunn Press, Ltd. | |__________. 1988. A Textbook of Translation. New York: Prentice-Hall International. | |__________. 1981. Approaches to Translation. Oxford: Pergamon Press | |Nida, E. 1975. Language Structure and Translation. Standford, California: Standford University Press. | |______. 1964. Towards a Science of Translating. Leiden: Brill. | |Vinay, J. P. and Darbelnet, J. 1965. Stylistique Comparee du Francois et de L’angalis. Paris: Didier. | http://www. proz. com/translation-articles/articles/2071/1/EQUIVALENCE-IN-TRANSLATION%3ASOME-PROBLEM-SOLVING-STRATEGIES

Perspectives On Society And Culture :: essays research papers

Perspectives on Society and Culture   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is very difficult as a reader to make any sense of the rituals performed by the Nacirema. The Nacirema are a people who stress the importance of physical wellness and go to great and to the outsider horrific lengths to ensure this. A professor Linton was the first to shed light on the particularly bizarre lifestyle that is lived by the Nacirema. Physical wellness being so heavily stressed is not the bizarre aspect, it is the spiritual sense and seemingly blind faith they put into their beliefs that is bewildering. These people believe the human body is ugly and that it breeds disease. The Nacirema pray daily through a private shrine in there house to , what seems to me cleanse and prevent, what to them lurks and breeds in our body. It is believed by the people that there is magical forces possesed in a chest in the shrine. These forces or magic is supplied through text by a medicine man who holds very high stature among the Nacirema. One part of the body that is seen to be excpecially unholy is the mouth. One major part of the cleansing of the mouth is done once or twice a year by the† holy mouth men†. This is where the man uses exotic instruments to open holes larger in decaying teeth or even healthy teeth. The teeth, with nerve exposed, are stuffed with†magical†material to arrest decay. To the outsider this is torturous. There are many other disturbing body cleansing rituals like the baking of women's heads scheduled by the patterns of the moon. This culture is one of many cultures who put there faith in past on beliefs and go to seemingly horrific measures carrying them out. This article was frightening as well as uplifting to me. What was frightening to me is the fact that in the US these disturbing rituals take place. As I already stated as an outsider it is very difficult trying to make sense of these customs in terms of my society.I was being quite ethnocentric. It took me a while to get my stomach back and realize that these people are born into this lifestyle. These rituals are apart of the religion they hold dear to there heart. So yes, to the common white Irish Catholic this may be peculiar, Perspectives On Society And Culture :: essays research papers Perspectives on Society and Culture   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is very difficult as a reader to make any sense of the rituals performed by the Nacirema. The Nacirema are a people who stress the importance of physical wellness and go to great and to the outsider horrific lengths to ensure this. A professor Linton was the first to shed light on the particularly bizarre lifestyle that is lived by the Nacirema. Physical wellness being so heavily stressed is not the bizarre aspect, it is the spiritual sense and seemingly blind faith they put into their beliefs that is bewildering. These people believe the human body is ugly and that it breeds disease. The Nacirema pray daily through a private shrine in there house to , what seems to me cleanse and prevent, what to them lurks and breeds in our body. It is believed by the people that there is magical forces possesed in a chest in the shrine. These forces or magic is supplied through text by a medicine man who holds very high stature among the Nacirema. One part of the body that is seen to be excpecially unholy is the mouth. One major part of the cleansing of the mouth is done once or twice a year by the† holy mouth men†. This is where the man uses exotic instruments to open holes larger in decaying teeth or even healthy teeth. The teeth, with nerve exposed, are stuffed with†magical†material to arrest decay. To the outsider this is torturous. There are many other disturbing body cleansing rituals like the baking of women's heads scheduled by the patterns of the moon. This culture is one of many cultures who put there faith in past on beliefs and go to seemingly horrific measures carrying them out. This article was frightening as well as uplifting to me. What was frightening to me is the fact that in the US these disturbing rituals take place. As I already stated as an outsider it is very difficult trying to make sense of these customs in terms of my society.I was being quite ethnocentric. It took me a while to get my stomach back and realize that these people are born into this lifestyle. These rituals are apart of the religion they hold dear to there heart. So yes, to the common white Irish Catholic this may be peculiar,

How significant is the theme of loneliness in Of Mice and Men? Essay

Loneliness is a state of detachment, separation, and isolation and a feeling of being friendless and forlorn. The book Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck picks up this feeling as one of it’s main themes. Several characters from the novel either isolate themselves or are being isolated. The main characters George and Lennie on the other hand have a strong relationship and many others envy them for this but even those two find themselves confronted with loneliness in some way. The two protagonists George and Lennie have a special kind of relationship and this makes them stand out from the others. Many of the other characters are very lonely and even Slim, the most popular worker on the farm, how special and rare George and Lennie’s relationship is. By sharing a dream together they relieve themselves of their loneliness. Both are in some way dependant on each other and that is exactly what many others search for. Crooks comments on his own loneliness by saying that â€Å"a guy goes nuts if he ain’t got nobody†. Candy and Crooks are two characters, who are excluded because of physical features and they both admire George and Lennie’s friendship. Candy is an old man who lost a hand during his work on the farm. He feels he is excluded from the others and very much holds on too his old dog. After this dog is shot he looses an important part of his life. One could draw some kind of comparison between the relationship of Candy and his dog and George and Lennie. Both of these two have a similar kind of dependency on each other and without each other they no longer have someone or something to look out for. So after Candy has lost his dog he offers George and Lennie his money in order for them to allow him to join them in their dream. This shows how little all of his savings mean to him if he can have just someone around him. Not only Candy though shows his loneliness and has suffered from it. Crooks, the black stable-buck, shares a similar fate to the old Candy. At the time the novel takes place black people were looked down upon and excluded. Crooks clearly suffers under this and although he initially displays aggressiveness, the reader can still sympathize with him because it is rather clear that this origins from his isolation and loneliness. When Lennie enters his bunk house he at first tries to throw him out but then decides to tease Lennie by asking him what would happen when George wouldn’t return. This displays Crook’s curiosity for the type of bond that exists between George and Lennie. Even though he does not believe George’s and Lennie’s dream will ever come true and even though he at first seems rather rejective towards the other characters he decides to ask whether he can join them. Demonstrating his strong longing for companionship. One more character though experiences loneliness even though it is not for the same reasons as for Crooks and Candy. Curley’s wife is excluded for different than Candy and Crooks but experiences the same kind of injustice. As she mentions, she is not very happy with her husband Curley. Therefore she flirts with the other men one the ranch but they try to keep away from her. They are afraid of getting in trouble with Curley and therefore she very much is isolated from everyone on the ranch. In Lennie she finds someone she can tell her feelings to because he cannot care any less about it and does not understand the reasons for her being isolated. This is her downfall but in someway frees both of them from their curse. Curley’s wife dies even though she is married in loneliness. Lennie would without George have no chance in the hard life of that time. In George Lennie not only found a protector but also someone to relieve him from his doom of being lonely. The other men left on the farm are all in some way lonely. Even though they keep contact they do not have anyone to look after or to take care of. Exactly that is where George and Lennie differentiate themselves from the others. All characters in the novel, besides George and Lennie, are in some way lonely, whether it is because some physical feature, their age, their sex or simply because of the circumstances of the time. They all had lost their goals on the way and therefore the connection to the people around them. George and Lennie on the other hand have a bond that connects them on two levels first of all the dependency on each other and second of all their shared dream.

Lindbergh Kidnapping research paper Essay

The trial of Bruno Richard Hauptmann in 1935 and the Lindbergh kidnapping was known by many as â€Å"the crime of the century†. Though many are still doubting whether or not Hauptmann actually committed the crime, there is much evidence pointing toward him that proves he was guilty. In examining the evidence presented, there was a great variety of it. It included handwritten evidence, witnesses, the ladder used to get into the baby’s window, and the ransom money found hidden in his home. Many experts who testified clearly identified Hauptmann’s handwriting while witnesses saw him on the Lindbergh estate lingering in his vehicle the day of the crime. In light of the specific type of ransom money that was discovered in his home, Hauptmann’s guilt was confirmed. The presented factors were overwhelming in proving his guilt. Bruno Hauptmann was guilty of the Lindbergh baby kidnapping and murder and should have been executed. Hauptmann had a long history of lawbreaking and violence throughout his teenage years. When he was a teenager, Hauptmann served as a machine gunman on the western front for the German army. During his time served, he lost two of his brothers, who died in battle. Hauptmann also lacked in much of his education. He only attended eight years of school and two years of secondary school for machinery and carpentry. After he was released from the army, he had no choice but to turn to a life of crime. Due to the crashing economy in Germany after the war, unemployment was extremely high, and with little education, Hauptmann needed a way to survive (â€Å"Bruno Richard Hauptmann Biography†). Hauptmann was convicted numerous times in Germany, and after many years of theft, arrests, and jail time, he was sent to prison. Surprisingly, he managed to escape incarceration. Hauptmann’s next step was to try and illegally enter the United States. Two times he failed and was sent to back t o Germany until November of 1923, when he successfully smuggled himself into the United States. During October of 1925, Hauptmann married a German immigrant, Anna Schoeffler, and successfully attempted to live a normal life with her. That was until Hauptmann committed the grisly crime of kidnapping and murdering Charles Lindbergh Jr, a toddler of only 20 months old (â€Å"Bruno Richard Hauptmann Biography†). There was an exorbitant amount of evidence presented to the jury during Hauptmann’s trial. Among the evidence was that of a ransom note left on the windowsill of the Lindbergh  baby’s window. The note read â€Å"Dear Sir! Have 50000$ redy 25000$ in 20$ bills 15000$ in 10$ bills and 10000$ in 5$ bills After 2-4 days we will inform you were to deliver the Mony. We warn you for making anyding public or for notify the Police The child is in gut care. Indication for all letters are singnature and three holes† (â€Å"Letters of Note: The Child Is in Gut Care†). Experts compared the handwriting on the note to that of Hauptmann’s, and it was relatively an identical match. Many of the letters were written the same, for example in the note, the perpetrator curled his at the end â€Å"y†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s, and Hauptmann proved to do the same (Linder). Although there was one expert who testified on Hauptmann’s behalf, his explanation was basically thrown away by the jury because it was outrageous (â€Å"The Evidence Against Hauptmann†). Another crucial piece of evidence found was the ladder Hauptmann used to get himself into Lindbergh’s window. He left the ladder at the crime scene and it was inspected by the crime scene investigators. It was said to be manufactured by the same wood that is used at a lumber yard near Hauptmann’s home. It was constructed at home and made to easily fold into three parts so that it could be transported in a tight space. Hauptmann used this to get into the nursery on the second floor of the Lindbergh home. When investigators looked around Hauptmann’s neighborhood, they discovered a lumber yard and compared the wood used in the ladder and discovered a match. Also, the wood from his attic was used to construct the ladder. Although the defense testified at the trial that the ladder had been soiled and should not be used as a real incriminating piece of evidence, it was still largely considered in the jury’s decision of making a verdict (â€Å"The Evidence Again st Hauptmann†). Hauptmann could not be placed with the child, or committing the heinous crime, but many people witnessed him around the Lindbergh residence a few days before the kidnapping, and even in his vehicle the day of the crime. Doctor John Condon, the man who delivered the ransom money to Hauptmann for the Lindberghs, testified that Hauptmann was definitely the man who was at the meeting spot to pick up the ransom money. There were many witnesses for everything that Hauptmann did previous the crime; he was identified cashing in the gold notes and following the ransom negotiator. However all witnesses except Doctor John Condon refused to identify  Hauptmann for the court. The only witness who testified was Condon (â€Å"The Evidence Against Hauptmann†). In order to hopefully capture the criminal of the crime, the Lindbergh’s paid the murder not in money, but in gold notes. Gold notes were unsuccessful in American banking and were discontinued after 1933. They were very easy to track and very obvious when used. All banks in America had a list of the serial numbers of the gold notes, and once the ransom money was paid, police tracked them for two years. Most of them were used and cashed in the New York area, where Hauptmann lived. The gold notes were used against Hauptmann as evidence when he cashed one in at a gas station and when police found them in his home. A man who worked at a gas station had had his suspicions about Hauptmann and written down his license plate number on the actual gold note and turned it into the police. Upon being turned in, the police tracked the license plate and found it belonged to Hauptmann. The next day, he was arrested and his house was searched. Investigators found $14,000 in his garage and it was discovered to be the ransom money that Condon delivered. (â€Å"The Evidence Against Hauptmann†). The remains of the victim, Charles Lindbergh Jr, were found near his home on May 12, 1932. When detectives further investigated the child’s remains, they discovered that he was killed the night of the kidnapping and Hauptmann rid of his body by leaving it in the woods. They also suggested that Lindbergh Jr was killed the night of the kidnapping, and was never alive while ransom money was being exchanged and negotiated (Linder). America was completely taken aback that someone would cause such heartbreak to their hero, Charles Lindbergh. Local newspapers wrote articles of how the kidnapper deserves the utmost punishment to the full extent of the law (â€Å"Historical Newspapers†). Newspapers also blamed gangs for the kidnapping of the â€Å"Lone Eagle†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s son. Notorious gang leader Al Capone was the center of attention after the crime took place, but in order to clear his name, he offered a $10,000 reward for the safe return of the baby, and also said that he himself would find the murderer if he was let go from incarceration (â€Å"The Crime of the Century†). Hauptmann testified until his last breath that he was innocent. His last words were â€Å"I am glad that my life in a world which has not understood me has ended. Soon I will be at home with my Lord, so I am dying an innocent man. Should, however, my death serve for the purpose of abolishing capital  punishment—such a punishment being arrived at only by circumstantial evidence—I feel that my death has not been in vain. I am at peace with God. I repeat, I protest my innocence of the crime for which I was convicted. However, I die with no malice or hatred in my heart. The love of Christ has filled my soul and I am happy in Him† (Linder). He tried his hardest to convince the jury, the judge, and the prosecuting attorney that he was innocent. However, the evidence spoke for itself. Everything played against Hauptmann’s favor, and he was executed on April 3, 1936 (Linder). The label â€Å"crime of the century† is very pertinent for the Lindbergh trial. Many people mourned for America’s hero after he was forced to deal with such heartbreak. The Lindbergh family were thrown into a pit of despair after the kidnapping and murder of their beloved son. Although many believed that Hauptmann was innocent, and his trial was unfair and tampered with, the amount of evidence presented was enough for the jury to reach a guilty verdict. Amidst the evidence was gold notes that were used as ransom money, handwritten evidence, the ladder used to get into the nursery window, and eyewitnesses. Bruno Richard Hauptmann was guilty for the kidnapping and murder of Charles Lindbergh Jr and it was a righteous act that he was arrested and executed.

Roman Numeral Origins and List from I to CI

Roman Numeral Origins and List from I to CI Manual Origin of the Roman for 5 [If youve forgotten what Roman Numerals look like, theyre listed below.] J. E. Sandys describes the origins of Roman numerals, in Latin Epigraphy. He says the original numeral was a line to stand for 1 and a representation of a hand that looks like a V to stand for 5. The X (10) is two hands joined or one v atop a second v turned upside down. However plausible that sounds considering the human tendency to use our digits and hands for counting, there is an alternative explanation. Etruscan and Greek Origin for Roman Numbers The X was similar to the Etruscan symbol for 10, the top half of which was adopted for 5. Ancient Chalcidic (Greek) symbols were added: one came to look like an L for 50 and the other was the Greek phi (ÃŽ ¦) that became the curved M (1000) symbol that was sometimes written like our symbol for infinity. Gradual Changes in the Roman Numerals To make the number 10,000 the phi was surrounded by an outside circle. A third circle made it 100,000. The right half of these symbols meant half, so half of the phi, a D meant 500, as used by Cicero. But towards the end of the Republic a horizontal bar above a numeral meant that number in the thousands, so a V with a bar on top meant 5,000, and a D with a bar on top meant 500,000. More on the Higher Roman Numerals Somewhat surprisingly, Sandys says that M was not used for 1000 before the second century A.D., except before p for mile milia passuum. Sandys says the original symbol for 100 was probably a Chalcidic theta (ÃŽËœ) and became a C. The fact that the word in Latin for 100, centum, began with a C made the symbol especially appropriate. Sources on Roman Numerals In addition to J. E. Sandys Latin Epigraphy, Mommsen is another source on the topic of Roman Numerals. For more recent work on Roman numerals, see The Origin of the Latin Numerals 1 to 1000, by Paul Keyser. American Journal of Archaeology Vol. 92, No. 4 (Oct., 1988), pp. 529-546. Also, see: Roman NumerationThe numbers, how to decline them, and the hours of the day. List of Roman Numerals from I to CI 1 I2 II3 III4 IV​5 V6 VI7 VII8 VIII9 IX10 X11 XI12 XII13 XIII14 XIV15 XV16 XVI17 XVII18 XVIII19 XIX20 XX21 XXI22 XXII23 XXIII24 XXIV25 XXV26 XXVI27 XXVII28 XXVIII29 XXIX30 XXX31 XXXI32 XXXII33 XXXIII34 XXXIV35 XXXV36 XXXVI37 XXXVII39 XXXIX38 XXXVIII40 XL41 XLI29 XXIX43 XLIII44 LIV45 XLV46 XLVI47 XLVII48 XLVIII49 XLIX50 L51 LI52 LII53 LIII54 LIV55 LV56 LVI57 LVII58 LVIII59 LIX60 LX61 LXI62 LXII63 LXIII64 LXIV65 LXV66 LXVI67 LXVII68 LXVIII69 LXIX70 LXX71 LXXI72 LXXII73 LXXIII74 LXXIV75 LXXV76 LXXVI77 LXXVII78 LXXVIII79 LXXIX80 LXXX81 LXXXI82 LXXXII83 LXXXIII84 LXXXIV85 LXXXV86 LXXXVI87 LXXXVII88 LXXXVIII89 LXXXIX90 XC91 XCI92 XCII93 XCIII94 XCIV95 XCV96 XCVI97 XCVII98 XCVIII99 XCIX100 C101 CI

Essay on Socialization

Essay on Socialization Essay on Socialization This is a free example essay on Socialization: Nature versus nurture: According to one side of the debate, individuals and social behavior are a product of heredity or nature. The others say that individual and social behavior are a product of experience and learning or nurture. Darwin pushed the nature viewpoint in his theory of evolution. â€Å"Humans are a product of natural processes†, he said. Evolutionary theorist used his theory to explain cross cultural differences and social inequalities. According to this, the dominant positions the Europeans occupied in the world was a result of natural selection – Asian, African and other people were regarded as biologically inferior. Within a group, people were believed to be rich and poor due to â€Å"survival of the fittest†. The concept of survival of the fittest was used to justify genocide. In the 20th century the pendulum swayed toward â€Å"nurture†. Pavlov experimented to show that dogs could be taught to salivate even at the sound of a bell, Skinner showed that pigeons could be taught ping-pong. The experiments were done through â€Å"reward† and â€Å"punishment†. These social scientists argued that human mind is equally malleable. It was believed that human mind is tabula rasa, upon which experience writes. Watson wrote: Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-informed, and my own specified world, to bring them up in, and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant chief and, yes, even beggar man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race.(1924). In other words, for behaviorists, socialization is everything. According to sociobiology, biological principles may be used to explain social activities of social animals including humans. According to sociobiology, human sexual behavior and courtship are based on inborn traits. They point out that in most animals, males are much larger and more aggressive and tend to dominate the â€Å"weaker† sex and that is the reason in all human societies, males tend to hold positions of greater authority. However, these issues have remained highly controversial and have been much debated about. Usually animals placed low on the evolutionary scale grow with little or no help from adults. Behavior of the â€Å"young† is more or less similar to the behavior of the â€Å"adults†. However, â€Å"higher† animals need to learn appropriate behavior. A human infant is most dependent of all. A child can not survive unaided for at least the first four to five years. Socialization is the process whereby people learn the attitudes, actions and values appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture. Ways in which people learn to conform to their society’s norms, values and roles. People learn to behave according to the norms of their culture. For example in the U.S., people grow up to view wealth as desirable and to blame the poor for their condition. Socialization occurs through human interaction, family members, teachers, best friends and also the media and the Internet. Socialization helps us acquire a sense of personal identity and learn what people in the surrounding culture believe and how they expect one to behave. Socialization connects different generations to one another (Turnbull 1983). Birth of a child alters the lives of those who bring up the child. Thus learning and adjustment go on throughout the life cycle. The process of socialization Freud viewed socialization as a confrontation between the child and society. According to him there is constant struggle between the child driven by powerful, inborn sexual and aggressive urges and elders who try to impose on the child appropriate behavior. Other sociologists like Cooley and Herbert Mead view it as collaboration between the child and society. Freud’s theory has been largely criticized. Some have rejected the idea that infants have erotic wishes and that what happens during infancy and childhood has its impact throughout life and the feminists have criticized him for directing his theories too much toward male experience. Mead’s ideas focus on symbolic interactionism. This is the notion that interactions between humans take place though symbols and interpretations of meanings. According to Mead, young children develop as social beings by imitating the action of those around them. In their play, small children often imitate the adults. Mead called this, â€Å"taking the role of another† – learning what it is like to be in the shoes of another. At this stage they acquire a sense of self. Agents of Socialization In all cultures, the family is the main source of socialization. Later in life, other agencies come into play. In modern societies, children spend most of their early years within a domestic unit consisting of mother, father and maybe siblings. In many cultures, uncles, aunts and grandparents do the caretaking of infants. Another agency of socialization is peer group. This is a friendship group of children of a similar age (peer means equal). Peer relations are founded upon mutual consent and the relations are reasonable egalitarian. Schools are another agency of socialization. Alongside the formal curriculum there is also hidden curriculum. Children learn discipline. Mass media – newspapers, magazines, radio and TV have become important to our lives and hence important socializing agencies. Television violence leads to violence in some children but educational programs also teach children prosocial behaviors like sharing and getting along with others – Sesame Street, The Cosby show etc. Children are as susceptible to good TV messages as they are to bad ones. Work place involves learning to behave appropriately within a work environment. Socialization at work place represents the harsh reality and realization of an ambition. Sesame Street Workshop for children This is a TV workshop that brings certain messages to children and help bring about change in people’s attitudes. The messages help break stereotypes and bridge understanding between people. It teaches them to be respectful and tolerant of others. CapeTown version of Sesame street is called Takalani Sesame. It has introduced an HIV positive character who is talented but tires very fast. This is done to ensure that kids do not demonize people with AIDS, to destigmatize AIDS victims and to make them socially acceptable. In an episode, when the muppet is asked what she wishes for, she says, â€Å"I wish that my mom was alive, that people were kind and that people were healthy†. The Middle East version of Sesame Street is called Sesame Story. It emphasizes on peace education by connecting Palestinian and Israeli muppets. It narrates stories that humanize people around the world and enhances understanding between people. â€Å"Unsocialized† children (feral or â€Å"untamed† children) What would children be like if they were raised in the absence of adult humans. The story of â€Å"the wild boy of Aveyron† goes as follows – In early 1800, a strange creature emerged from the woods in southern France. He walked erect, but looked more animal than human. He spoke only strange sounding shrills. He had no sense of hygiene and relieved himself wherever he chose. He wore no clothes. He was brought to a police station and then taken to an orphanage. He refused to wear clothes, tore them off as soon as they were put on him and no parents came to claim him. After a thorough medical examination, no major physical abnormalities were found. Observation revealed that the boy was not completely without intelligence. Later he was toilet-trained and taught to wear clothes. He learned some human speech but made little progress and died around the age of 40 years. In another case, a Californian girl named Genie, born with a defective hip was kept locked by her psychotic father for twelve years. Her mother who was blind and highly dependent was also locked up in isolation. The only contact they had with outside world was through a teenage son who went to school and did grocery shopping. Genie was not toilet trained. She had never heard anyone talk, had no toys and was kept tied up by her father who also beat her frequently. When the girl was around 12 years of age, her mother escaped with her and placed her in a rehabilitation center. Here she was toilet-trained, she learned to eat, talk and walk etc. Her mastery of the language never progressed beyond that of a 3 – 4 year old. She was a case of a child who had been deprived of social learning. She was alive but not a social being. In both the cases of â€Å"feral† children, (raised without adults, and in isolation) by the time they came into contact with humans, children had grown beyond the age of learning language and other behaviors. This goes to show how limited our faculties would be in the absence of an extended period of early socialization. Even the most basic human traits depend upon socialization. Need for love All studies point to the undeniable need for nuturance in early childhood. Extreme isolation is related to profound retardation in acquisition of social and language skills. Cross-cultural variations Cross-cultural studies are also a good indication of the impact of socialization on human behavior. Margaret Mead (1935) conducted a classic study to find out whether women are nurturing by â€Å"nature† and men aggressive by â€Å"nature†? Her study in New Guinea showed that males proved as mild–mannered and nurturing as the females. Little boys treated infant girls like dolls. Men could not stand to hear a baby cry. Members of both sexes behaved in ways that we might call â€Å"feminine†. In another tribe she found that women were as hot-tempered, combative and uncaring as men were. Her work indicated that human behavior is largely learned. Resocialization Many adults and even adolescents experience the need to correct certain patterns of prior social learning that they and others find detrimental. Resocialization is a process whereby individuals undergo intense and deliberate socialization designed to change major beliefs and behaviors. Often aimed at changing behaviors like drinking, drug abuse, overeating etc. ______________ is a professional essay writing service which can provide high school, college and university students with 100% original custom written essays, research papers, term papers, dissertations, courseworks, homeworks, book reviews, book reports, lab reports, projects, presentations and other assignments of top quality. 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The Corporate Governance Scenario in the UK With Focus on Banks Essay

The Corporate Governance Scenario in the UK With Focus on Banks - Essay Example As mentioned earlier the area of corporate governance is of great importance and focus in the world of business today. â€Å"Most academics, business professionals, and lay observers would agree that CG is defined as the general set of customs, regulations, habits, and laws that determine to what end a firm should be run. Much more fraught, however, is the question: â€Å"what defines good corporate governance?† (A Closer Look at Business Edition: Corporate Governance. 2006). Corporations unlike its smaller counterparts like sole proprietorships, partnerships, and small and medium enterprises (SMEs) are much larger and hence more complex to govern. Even though no owner or partner can avoid the concept of good governance, the consequences of a smaller firm going under due to poor practices are much lower when compared to large corporations. One of the main reasons is that the number of stakeholders who are affected is comparatively huge in the case of corporations. In this cas e, the stakeholders will comprise the employees, the shareholders, the local governing bodies, the creditors, other contractual partners, any subsidiaries and branches, the national government, management or board of directors, and the principal owners (if any). Poor governance can affect each one of these sectors in a big way. In some localities, the economy of that place may be dependent on the performance of its principal employer, a corporation. The economy will be badly affected if such a huge employer finds itself in the red and lays off all its employees.